Collectivisation killed about 2.5 million in Ukraine and about half a million in the rest of the country mostly killed, as Jason B points out, by famine and deportation. Hundreds of thousands were left to their fate on the steppes or in the middle of marshy pine forests without regular food supplies or work. Estimates of the quantity vary between 20% and 35% of all livestock being deliberately killed. al, 1997). The notorious prisons, which incarcerated about 18 million people throughout their history, operated from the 1920s until shortly after Stalin’s death in 1953. To answer this difficult question, I had to venture back to 1917 to the collapse of the old regime *1. On 1 January 1932, the GPU carried out a general census of all deportees: it listed 1,317,022 people. It is important to note that, in Courtois’s argument, two very different forms of mass violence are lumped together: the “liquidation of the kulaks as a class” (1930-32) and the Ukrainian famine of 1932-33, which affected all the peasants in the collective farms of that Soviet republic. The “dekulakisation” campaign begun in January 1930 had in reality a twofold objective: to “extract” (the term used in secret police directives) “elements” likely to resist the collectivisation of the countryside being undertaken at the same time; and to “colonise” the vast, inhospitable areas of Siberia, the Northern Region, the Urals and Kazakhstan. The highest Soviet authorities ordered 386,798 people shot in the “Kulak Operation” of 1937–1938. … Who remembers the names now of the boyars Ivan the Terrible got rid of? All other able-bodied adults were “just trying to survive”. The largest “mass secret operation”, launched by NKVD Order N°00447 dated 30 July 1937, specifically targeted, among other categories, “former kulaks, deported in previous years, who have escaped from the special settlements”. The collectivization of Russian farms proved to be such a dismal failure that shortages would occur year after year. Amidst this deadly chaos, the strongest and most resolute escaped (for example, 15% of the 230,000 “dekulakised” deported to the Northern region had escaped by December 1930). When railway convoys finally arrived at their destination, the interminable journey often continued for several hundred more kilometres on sledges (in winter), carts (in spring), or even on foot. Altogether, more than half a million deportees died in 1930-33, or 22% of the 2.3 million people deported during those years. “In international courts, it’s considered the crime of crimes.”. In fact, dekulakisation often turned into social cleansing of all “socially alien elements”, among whom featured “police officers of the Tsarist regime”, “White officers”, former landlords and shopkeepers, members of the “rural intelligentsia” (among them many teachers), many of whom had joined the SR (socialist-revolutionary) party in 1917-18. Dictatorship and Democracy Statistics/Figures. Magistr, 1996. The economic backwardness and political estrangement of the peasantry, which comprised the vast majority of the population of the Soviet Union, was the Achilles’ heel of Soviet power. Quadrige, 1995. On the other hand, we should not forget that several hundred thousand “former kulaks” – many of whom had fled from the “special settlements” to which they had been deported – were arrested during the “Great Terror” of 1937-38. The resolution set a limit of 63,000 household heads in the “first category” (in fact, 284,000 persons were to be arrested during the first six months of the dekulakisation campaign as ”kulaks of the first category, 20,000 of whom were sentenced to death by troïki, extra-judicial commissions); - those “who manifested less active opposition to the Soviet state but were arch-exploiters and naturally supported counter-revolution”, placed in the “second category”, were to be arrested and deported with their families to remote areas of the Northern region, Siberia, the Urals and Kazakhstan. Danilov, Viktor.P (ed.) Three years later, hundreds of thousands of children of kulaks were mobilised into the Red Army. Preparation. “Some officials overfulfilled as a way of showing their exuberance.”. Photo Credit. Stalin and many Party leaders were still traumatised by the threat of starvation experienced by many town dwellers during the civil war and wanted to ensure that such a possibility would never again recur. On 1 January 1932, the GPU carried out a general census of all deportees: it listed 1,317,022 people. Even the Soviet Army was sent into the countryside to help sow, tend, and harvest food. This plan was, however, not “fulfilled”: only 71,000 people were registered as “newcomers” in the 1932 registers of the GPU-run spetzposelki. This still leaves us with approximately 250,000-300,000 deaths. © Stanford University. It is generally believed that former kulaks (both those who had fled from the “special settlements” and those who were still living there) contributed to approximately one quarter of the victims of Order N°00447. According to a GPU report from Smolensk, “the brigades took from the wealthy peasants their winter clothes, their warm underclothes, and above all their shoes. In a way, millions of peasants turned into farmers. We know, by the same police sources, that nearly 1.8 million “kulaks” were deported during the two main deportation waves in 1930 and 1931. The definition can determine, after all, international relations, foreign aid and national morale. True, the lists of first-category kulak households were drawn up exclusively by the GPU. Moreover, contrary to Soljenitsyn’s assertion (“children of kulaks carried the mark of Cain throughout their lives”), the pariah-status of the dekulakised was not carried forward to the next generation: from 1938 onwards, children of kulaks who reached the age of 16 were allowed to leave their place of deportation if they continued their schooling beyond the required age. Stalin’s solution to this was collectivization. However, the context was different: whereas in 1920-21 large segments of the peasantry had actively resisted Boshevik policy, in 1929-30 it was the pacified peasant society that was the target of the Stalinist revolution from above. How many years was this gap closed in? All early drafts of the U.N. genocide convention included social and political groups in its definition. “Liquidation of the kulaks as a class” did not imply physical liquidation of all kulaks, even though the terrible conditions in which the deportation took place and the “settlement” of the kulaks, who, at least in the first stages of the dekulakisation operations, were often abandoned in the middle of the taïga or the desert steppes, caused a very high rate of mortality that sometimes reached 15% per annum (and much higher in the case of children).
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